The University Wits and Their Contribution

The term University Wits refers to a group of young and talented English playwrights and poets who were educated at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the late 16th century. They played a crucial role in shaping English drama before William Shakespeare emerged as a dominant figure. Their works contributed to the development of Elizabethan drama by introducing complex characters, powerful language, and well-structured plots.

The main University Wits were Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene, John Lyly, Thomas Nashe, George Peele, and Thomas Lodge. These writers were among the first to move English drama away from the rigid medieval Morality plays and Mystery plays towards more sophisticated and entertaining forms of theatre.

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Features of the University Wits’ Drama

1. Use of Blank Verse – They popularized the use of unrhymed iambic pentameter (blank verse), which later became the dominant form of dramatic poetry, especially in Shakespearean drama.
2. Tragic Themes – Their plays often revolved around intense emotions, conflicts, and tragic heroes with great ambition.
3. Vivid and Imaginative Language – They used grand and poetic expressions, making their plays more engaging.
4. Well-Developed Characters – Their protagonists were often larger-than-life figures, such as Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus and Tamburlaine.
5. Action-Oriented and Fast-Paced Narratives – They focused on engaging plots filled with dramatic events, helping drama evolve from static medieval performances to dynamic plays.

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Major University Wits and Their Contributions

1. Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593)

Marlowe is considered the most influential among the University Wits. He perfected the use of blank verse and introduced ambitious characters driven by power and desire.

• Major Works:
• Tamburlaine the Great – A play about an ambitious shepherd who becomes a ruthless conqueror.
• Doctor Faustus – The story of a scholar who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power.
• The Jew of Malta – A revenge tragedy centered on the wealthy and cunning Barabas.
• Edward II – A historical play focusing on the downfall of the English king.

2. Thomas Kyd (1558–1594)

Kyd is best known for his revenge tragedy, which heavily influenced later playwrights, including Shakespeare.

• Major Work:
• The Spanish Tragedy – A powerful revenge play that introduced elements like the play within a play, which Shakespeare later used in Hamlet.

3. Robert Greene (1558–1592)

Greene was a versatile writer known for his romantic comedies and prose works. He was also a harsh critic of Shakespeare, referring to him as an "upstart crow" in one of his writings.

• Major Works:
• Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay – A romantic play blending magic, love, and comedy.
• Orlando Furioso – A play based on the Italian epic poem of the same name.

4. John Lyly (1554–1606)

Lyly specialized in courtly and sophisticated dramas, often filled with wit and elegance. His style, known as Euphuism, influenced later writers, including Shakespeare.

• Major Works:
• Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit – A prose work famous for its elaborate and ornamental style.
• Campaspe – A comedy based on Alexander the Great’s love for a beautiful woman.
• Endymion – A mythological play that explores themes of love and beauty.

5. Thomas Nashe (1567–1601)

Nashe was known for his satirical writing and contribution to prose fiction.

• Major Work:
• Summer’s Last Will and Testament – A play filled with allegory and social criticism.

6. George Peele (1556–1596)

Peele wrote plays that combined history, comedy, and mythology. His works were known for their poetic beauty.

• Major Works:
• The Arraignment of Paris – A mythological play that glorifies Queen Elizabeth I.
• The Old Wives’ Tale – A play that uses humor and fantasy elements.

7. Thomas Lodge (1558–1625)

Lodge was a poet, playwright, and prose writer who contributed to early English fiction.

• Major Work:
• Rosalynde – A prose romance that later inspired Shakespeare’s As You Like It.

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Contribution of the University Wits

1. Improvement of English Drama – They transformed English theatre from simple medieval plays to more artistic and engaging drama.
2. Establishment of Blank Verse – Marlowe and others popularized blank verse, which became the standard for English plays.
3. Introduction of Complex Characters – They created powerful protagonists with strong ambitions, flaws, and emotions.
4. Development of Tragic Drama – Their tragedies laid the foundation for Shakespearean and Jacobean drama.
5. Influence on Shakespeare – Many elements in Shakespeare’s plays, including complex villains, poetic dialogues, and tragic conflicts, were inspired by the University Wits.

The University Wits played a significant role in shaping English drama. Their works influenced later playwrights, including Shakespeare, and helped create the golden age of English theatre. Studying their contributions gives students a deeper understanding of the evolution of English literature.

 

Elizabethan Prose

The Elizabethan Age (1558–1603) is often called the golden age of English literature. While drama and poetry flourished, prose writing also saw significant development. Writers experimented with new literary forms, including essays, pamphlets, travelogues, and prose fiction. Elizabethan prose laid the foundation for modern English prose by refining style, language, and expression.

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Characteristics of Elizabethan Prose

1. Ornamental Style – Elizabethan prose was often elaborate and decorative, using long, complex sentences filled with rhetorical devices.
2. Euphuism – A highly elaborate and artificial style of prose developed by John Lyly, characterized by balanced sentences, alliteration, and rich metaphors.
3. Variety of Subjects – Writers explored history, philosophy, travel, politics, and storytelling.
4. Influence of Classical Literature – Many works drew inspiration from Greek and Roman texts.
5. Emergence of Prose Fiction – Early forms of the novel, such as romances and tales, became popular.

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Major Writers and Their Contributions

1. John Lyly (1554–1606) – The Creator of Euphuism

Lyly’s prose was highly sophisticated, filled with wordplay and balanced structures. His works were widely read and influenced later writers, including Shakespeare.

• Major Works:
• Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit (1578) – A story about a young man’s journey of self-discovery, written in an elegant and refined style.
• Euphues and His England (1580) – A sequel that explores the customs and culture of England.

2. Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) – The Pioneer of Prose Romance

Sidney blended romance, history, and philosophy in his prose. His writing was poetic and imaginative.

• Major Works:
• Arcadia (1590) – A romantic prose work full of adventure, love, and heroism.
• The Defence of Poesy (1595) – A significant literary criticism defending poetry’s role in society.

3. Richard Hakluyt (1553–1616) – The Travel Writer

Hakluyt was a historian and geographer known for collecting travel accounts that inspired English exploration.

• Major Work:
• The Principal Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589) – A compilation of travel stories that encouraged English maritime expansion.

4. Thomas Nashe (1567–1601) – The Satirist

Nashe was a brilliant satirical writer known for his humorous and critical prose.

• Major Works:
• The Unfortunate Traveller (1594) – An early example of picaresque fiction, narrating the adventures of a rogue.
• Pierce Penniless (1592) – A social satire attacking the corruption of Elizabethan society.

5. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) – The Father of the English Essay

Bacon introduced a new, concise, and logical style of writing, different from the elaborate prose of his predecessors.

• Major Works:
• Essays (1597, expanded in 1612 and 1625) – A collection of short, philosophical reflections on topics such as truth, love, and ambition.
• The Advancement of Learning (1605) – A significant work promoting scientific and empirical thinking.

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Significance of Elizabethan Prose

1. Development of Literary Prose – Writers moved away from Latin and developed English prose as a literary medium.
2. Influence on Later Writers – Euphuism, prose romances, and essays influenced later authors, including Shakespeare, Milton, and 18th-century novelists.
3. Rise of English Nationalism – Travel literature like Hakluyt’s work promoted England’s expansion and maritime ambitions.
4. Shift from Poetry to Prose – The refined style of Bacon and others laid the groundwork for modern English essays and scientific writing.

Elizabethan prose was an essential step in the evolution of English literature. It refined the language, introduced new literary forms, and inspired future generations of writers.

 

Restoration Comedy

Restoration Comedy refers to the type of English comedy that flourished during the Restoration period (1660–1710). After the Puritan rule under Oliver Cromwell (1649–1660), when theatre was banned, King Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and reopened the theatres. This period marked a new era in English drama, known for its witty dialogues, satire, and lively characters.

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Characteristics of Restoration Comedy

1. Wit and Satire – Restoration comedies were known for their sharp humor and clever wordplay, often mocking the hypocrisy of society.
2. Sexual Themes and Intrigue – These plays openly explored love, marriage, infidelity, and social scandals.
3. Comedy of Manners – They portrayed the lifestyle of the upper class, exposing their vanity, greed, and double standards.
4. Stock Characters – Many plays featured recurring character types, such as:
• The Fop – A foolish, fashionable man obsessed with appearance.
• The Rake – A charming but morally loose young man.
• The Cuckold – A deceived husband.
• The Coquette – A flirtatious woman.
5. Role of Women – For the first time, women were allowed to act on stage, replacing the earlier tradition where men played female roles. This led to the rise of famous actresses like Nell Gwyn.

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Major Playwrights and Their Works

1. William Congreve (1670–1729) – The Master of Comedy of Manners

Congreve refined Restoration Comedy with more sophistication and wit. His plays are considered some of the finest of the period.

• Major Works:
• The Way of the World (1700) – A comedy of manners featuring witty dialogue and complex relationships.
• Love for Love (1695) – A play exploring deception and love among the upper class.

2. George Etherege (1636–1692) – The Pioneer of the Comedy of Manners

Etherege introduced the elegant and witty tone of Restoration Comedy.

• Major Works:
• The Man of Mode (1676) – A play satirizing London’s fashionable elite, featuring the famous rake, Dorimant.

3. William Wycherley (1641–1716) – The Critic of Hypocrisy

Wycherley’s plays exposed the moral corruption and hypocrisy of high society.

• Major Works:
• The Country Wife (1675) – A scandalous comedy about deception and infidelity.
• The Plain Dealer (1676) – A satire on dishonesty in society.

4. Aphra Behn (1640–1689) – The First Professional Woman Playwright

Behn was one of the first female writers to make a living through her plays, challenging male-dominated literature.

• Major Works:
• The Rover (1677) – A romantic comedy about English cavaliers in Spain.
• The Emperor of the Moon (1687) – A farcical play mocking scientific discoveries.

5. Sir John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) – The Architect of Farce and Comedy

Vanbrugh combined wit with exaggerated humor and farce.

• Major Works:
• The Relapse (1696) – A sequel to an earlier play, filled with mistaken identities and deceptions.
• The Provoked Wife (1697) – A social comedy criticizing unhappy marriages.

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Decline of Restoration Comedy

By the early 18th century, society grew more conservative, and Restoration Comedy faced criticism for being too immoral. Writers like Richard Steele and later, Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Sheridan, moved towards more sentimental and moralistic comedies.

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Significance of Restoration Comedy

1. Development of Comedy of Manners – It laid the foundation for later satirical works in the 18th and 19th centuries.
2. Freedom of Expression – It broke away from strict Puritan values and explored real human relationships.
3. Rise of Female Playwrights and Actresses – Women gained a significant role in theatre, both on and off stage.
4. Influence on Modern Comedy – Restoration Comedy’s wit and humor influenced later playwrights like Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw.

Restoration Comedy remains an essential part of English literature, reflecting the vibrant and extravagant lifestyle of the 17th century. It continues to be studied and performed for its wit, satire, and lively characters.

 

Bacon’s Essay "Of Studies"

Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was a famous English philosopher, writer, and statesman. He is best known for his essays, which offer practical wisdom on various aspects of life. His essay "Of Studies" is one of his most popular works. In this essay, Bacon explains the importance of studying, how books should be read, and how knowledge can be used wisely in life.

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Main Themes in "Of Studies"

1. The Purposes of Study

Bacon begins the essay by stating the three main purposes of study:

1. "Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability."
• Delight – Reading brings personal joy and pleasure, especially in leisure time. Books can be a great source of entertainment and intellectual satisfaction.
• Ornament – Learning improves conversation skills. An educated person can speak with confidence and knowledge in social or professional settings.
• Ability – Studies improve a person’s ability to think clearly, solve problems, and make better decisions.

Bacon warns that studying should not be excessive. He writes:

• "To spend too much time in studies is sloth." – If a person studies all the time without applying knowledge, they become lazy.
• "To use them too much for ornament is affectation." – Showing off knowledge just to impress others is foolish.
• "To make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar." – Relying only on book knowledge without practical experience is not useful.

2. The Right Way to Read Books

Bacon advises that not all books should be read in the same way. He famously classifies books into three types:

• "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested."
• Books to be tasted – Some books should be read briefly, just to get a general idea. These books do not require deep study.
• Books to be swallowed – Some books should be read quickly without too much analysis. They provide useful information but do not need deep understanding.
• Books to be chewed and digested – Some books should be studied carefully and deeply. These books contain valuable knowledge that must be understood and applied.

This classification teaches students how to approach different types of books wisely.

3. The Benefits of Studying Different Subjects

Bacon discusses how different subjects develop different mental abilities. He says:

• "Histories make men wise." – Reading history teaches lessons from the past and helps in decision-making.
• "Poets make men witty." – Reading poetry improves creativity and imagination.
• "Mathematics make men subtle." – Studying mathematics sharpens logical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• "Logic and rhetoric make men able to contend." – Learning logic and debate improves reasoning and communication skills.

Bacon suggests that every subject has a unique purpose and should be studied for its specific benefits.

4. The Practical Application of Studies

Bacon emphasizes that knowledge should not remain theoretical. He says that different types of people react to studies in different ways:

• "Crafty men condemn studies." – Unintelligent or cunning people ignore the value of learning.
• "Simple men admire them." – Ordinary people respect education but may not use it properly.
• "Wise men use them." – Truly wise people apply knowledge in their daily lives.

This means that education should not be for show but should be used practically in decision-making, communication, and problem-solving.

5. The Relationship Between Study and Experience

Bacon believes that studying alone is not enough. Practical experience is equally important. He says:

• "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man."
• Reading fills the mind with knowledge.
• Discussion (conference) helps in forming quick responses.
• Writing improves clarity and precision in thought.

He also suggests that if a person has a weakness in a certain area, they should study specific subjects to correct it. He writes:

• "Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach." – Just as different exercises help different parts of the body, different kinds of reading help different parts of the mind.

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Conclusion

Bacon’s essay "Of Studies" is a timeless piece of wisdom that teaches the importance of reading and learning. He explains that studies should not be for show but should be applied in real life. He also guides readers on how to approach books and subjects effectively. His ideas are still relevant today, helping students, teachers, and thinkers understand the true value of education.

 

The Metaphysical Poets

The Metaphysical Poets were a group of 17th-century English poets known for their intellectual, philosophical, and highly imaginative style of poetry. They explored complex themes such as love, religion, morality, and the nature of existence. Their poetry is characterized by intricate wordplay, striking metaphors (conceits), and a blend of emotion and reasoning.

The term Metaphysical was first used by Samuel Johnson in the 18th century to describe these poets, particularly their use of unusual imagery and logical arguments. While they did not form a distinct literary movement, their poetry shares common features that set them apart from the traditional Elizabethan poets.

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Features of Metaphysical Poetry

1. Use of Conceits – Metaphysical poets used conceits, which are extended and often surprising comparisons. For example, in A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, John Donne compares the bond between two lovers to the legs of a compass, symbolizing unity despite physical separation.
2. Intellectual and Philosophical Approach – Their poems often reflect deep thought, questioning ideas about love, faith, and the universe.
3. Dramatic Openings and Conversational Style – Many poems begin suddenly, as though in the middle of a conversation. For example, Donne’s The Flea starts with, "Mark but this flea, and mark in this," immediately drawing the reader into a dialogue.
4. Religious and Spiritual Themes – Many poets, especially George Herbert and Henry Vaughan, wrote deeply religious poetry, meditating on divine grace and human weakness.
5. Use of Paradoxes and Irony – Their poetry often includes contradictions and surprising twists, making readers think deeply about the subject.

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Major Metaphysical Poets and Their Works

1. John Donne (1572–1631)

John Donne is considered the leader of the Metaphysical poets. His poetry is divided into two main themes: love and religion. His love poems are witty, passionate, and often playful, while his religious poems reflect his later spiritual transformation.

• Major Works:
• The Flea – A humorous poem where love is compared to a flea bite.
• A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning – A farewell poem using a compass as a metaphor for enduring love.
• Holy Sonnets – A collection of religious poems, including Death, Be Not Proud, which challenges the power of death.

2. George Herbert (1593–1633)

Herbert was a deeply religious poet whose works express devotion, humility, and the struggle of faith. His poetry often uses simple language and extended metaphors to explore spiritual themes.

• Major Works:
• The Temple – A collection of devotional poems.
• The Pulley – A poem explaining how God gives humanity blessings but holds back complete satisfaction to keep them close to Him.
• Love (III) – A beautiful poem about divine love and acceptance.

3. Andrew Marvell (1621–1678)

Marvell’s poetry blends wit, politics, and philosophy. His poems often reflect themes of love, nature, and the fleeting nature of time.

• Major Works:
• To His Coy Mistress – A famous poem persuading a woman to embrace love before time runs out.
• The Garden – A meditation on the peacefulness of nature.
• An Horatian Ode – A political poem about Oliver Cromwell.

4. Henry Vaughan (1621–1695)

Vaughan was influenced by George Herbert and wrote mystical poetry that focuses on spiritual reflection and nature. His poems often express a longing for innocence and divine presence.

• Major Works:
• Silex Scintillans – A collection of deeply religious poetry.
• The Retreat – A nostalgic poem about childhood innocence and purity.
• The World – A philosophical poem about the temporary nature of human life.

5. Richard Crashaw (1613–1649)

Crashaw was known for his intense religious devotion and highly imaginative style. His poetry often includes vivid imagery and passionate expressions of faith.

• Major Works:
• Steps to the Temple – A collection of religious poetry.
• The Flaming Heart – A tribute to Saint Teresa of Ávila.

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Significance of the Metaphysical Poets

The Metaphysical poets revolutionized English poetry by combining deep intellectualism with raw emotion. Their use of conceits, paradoxes, and philosophical arguments made their poetry unique and thought-provoking. Though their style was not widely appreciated during their time, later poets and critics, including T.S. Eliot, recognized their influence.

For undergraduate students, studying Metaphysical poetry is essential as it helps develop critical thinking and an appreciation for the fusion of intellect and emotion in literature. Their works remain an important part of English literary history.

 

A Brief Note on Bacon’s Essay Of Travel

Francis Bacon’s essay Of Travel talks about the benefits of traveling, especially for young people. He sees travel as an important way to learn and gain new ideas. Bacon does not focus only on the fun of traveling but also on how it helps in education and personal growth. His essay gives useful advice and deep thoughts, making it relevant even today.

The Educational Value of Travel

Bacon believes travel is an important part of learning. He says that seeing different cultures, traditions, and governments helps shape a person’s mind and character. When people visit new places, they learn about history, politics, and society in a way that books cannot teach. Travel, according to Bacon, makes people more intelligent, well-rounded, and adaptable.

Practical Advice for Travelers

Bacon gives useful tips for travelers. He advises young men to travel with a tutor or an experienced companion who can guide them in understanding what they see. He also suggests keeping a journal to write down important experiences and thoughts. This helps in remembering details and thinking deeply about what they learn.

Bacon also recommends learning the local language, as language barriers can limit understanding. He says travelers should try to talk to local people. However, he warns against blindly following foreign customs and advises travelers to understand and think before adopting them. He also reminds travelers to manage their money wisely and be careful in choosing their friends.

The Impact of Travel on Character

Bacon says that travel helps people think better and become more open-minded. However, he also warns that admiring foreign cultures too much can make people forget their own traditions. A good traveler should respect other cultures while staying connected to their own roots.

Conclusion

Bacon’s Of Travel is more than just an essay about visiting new places. It is a guide on how to travel with purpose and wisdom. He encourages young people to use travel as a way to learn and grow. His advice is still useful today, reminding us that travel is not just about moving from one place to another, but about gaining knowledge and experience.

Critical Appreciation of "The Treasure of Our Tongue" by Samuel Daniel

Samuel Daniel, a Renaissance poet and historian, was deeply concerned with the development and dignity of the English language. In his poem "The Treasure of Our Tongue," he celebrates the richness, beauty, and expressive power of English, arguing that it is as capable as Latin or Greek in conveying deep thoughts and artistic excellence. Written during a time when English was still gaining literary recognition, the poem defends its worth and emphasizes its potential for greatness. Daniel views language as a treasure, a priceless inheritance that should be nurtured and preserved through literature and poetry.

Title Justification

The title "The Treasure of Our Tongue" suggests that the poem celebrates the richness and value of the English language. Samuel Daniel emphasizes how language is a precious asset, shaping communication, literature, and national identity. By calling it a "treasure," the poet highlights its immense worth and lasting significance.

Type of Poetry

This poem is an example of didactic poetry, as it aims to educate readers about the importance of the English language. It also has elements of lyrical poetry, as it expresses the poet’s admiration for the language in a rhythmic and expressive manner.

Imagery and Style

Samuel Daniel uses metaphorical imagery to describe the English language:

• "Treasure" – The poet compares language to a valuable possession, emphasizing its cultural and literary importance.
• "Our tongue" – By using the word "our," he creates a sense of unity and shared heritage.

Daniel’s style is formal and reflective, showing deep appreciation for language and its role in literature. He writes in a structured manner, typical of Renaissance poetry, focusing on the elegance and power of words.

Message and Themes

The poem explores several important themes:

• The Power of Language – Language is a tool for communication, storytelling, and knowledge.
• Cultural Pride – The English language is depicted as something to be proud of, reflecting national identity and artistic greatness.
• Preservation of Literature – Daniel suggests that language, when used effectively in poetry and literature, becomes immortal.

Conclusion

Samuel Daniel’s "The Treasure of Our Tongue" is a poetic tribute to the English language. Through rich imagery, a reflective tone, and a didactic approach, the poem highlights the importance of preserving and appreciating language. It serves as a reminder that words are not just tools of expression but also treasures that shape history, culture, and art.